Introduction to Language

Shikshan Prasarak Sanstha’s
Padmabhushan Vasantraodada Patil Mahavidyalaya, Kavathe Mahankal
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
B. A. PART - II

LINGUISTICS (I.D.S) (Paper - I) (Semester - III)

LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS (CBCS with MEME by NEP) QUESTION PAPER PATTERN June 2023 Onwards

Detailed Syllabi (June 20232 Onwards)

 

 Course Objectives:

§  To acquaint the students with Language and Linguistics in general.

§  To acquaint the students with Phonetics and Phonology.

§  To acquaint the students with Morphology and Syntax.

§  To acquaint the students with the concepts of Semantics and Pragmatics.

Course Outcomes: After completing the course, the student will be able to:

§  Know about language and linguistics.

§  Learn the concepts of Phonetics and Phonology

§  Understand the basics of Morphology and Syntax

§  Acquaint with Semantics and Pragmatics

 

 Module: I Introduction to Language

I)  Definitions

II)    Characteristics of Language

III)   Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems

Module: II Introduction to Linguistics

I)    What is Linguistics?

II)    Linguistics as a Science

III)   Diachronic and Synchronic Linguistics

IV)    The Concepts of ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’

Module: III Phonetics

I)  Speech Mechanism:

i)  Organs of Speech: lips, teeth, tongue, palate (the roof of the mouth), uvula, vocal cords, etc.

ii)  Description of English Consonants and Vowels with three-term labels

iii)  Active and Passive Articulators

II)  Phonetics:

i)  Difference between Speech Sounds and Letters

ii)  What is Phonetics?

iii)  Branches of Phonetics: Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics.

iv)    Phonetic Transcription of Simple Words

 Module: IV Phonology

I)  Difference between Phonetics and Phonology

II)    Phonemes and Allophones

III)   Minimal Pairs

 

Division of Teaching: 4 Modules X 15 Periods = 60 Periods

v Note: Semester-III: 10 Marks for Internal Evaluation: Group Activity.

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 Module: I  Introduction to Language
I)  Definitions
II) Characteristics of Language
III)   Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems

I)                Introduction to Language

Language is a means of communication and through communication, we express our information like thoughts, ideas, concepts, emotions, feelings, etc. Language is defined in several ways in the document or in the text. The most encompassing definition is that language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through which thought is conveyed from one human being to another. Language has several key elements - it is a system, the symbols used are arbitrary, it is vocal in nature, it uses symbols, and the symbols are conventional. Language allows for the transmission of messages between humans. It has unique properties like the duality of structure, creativity, arbitrariness, reciprocity, displacement, cultural transmission through learning, specialization, discreteness, and reflexiveness. Competence refers to the internalized knowledge of language rules, while performance is the actual use of language. Language serves important functions like communication.

Definitions:

1.     Language is a symbol system based on pure or arbitrary conventions…. (syane and jindal 2007:1)

2.     Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral auditory arbitrary. (Hall, 1969 (ibid)

3.     Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates. (Bioch and Trager, 1942)

4.     Language is a system of vocal symbols used for human communications. (wardaugh- 1972)

5.     Language is a collection of signs arbitrarily chosen and organized according to certain fixed principles acceptable by society.

6.     Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed from one human being (a speaker or writer) to another (a listener or reader)

7.     Language is a conventional system habitual system of vocal behavior by which community members communicate with one another.

8.     Language is a learned and shared habitual system of vocal symbols through which human beings in the same speech community interact and communicate in terms of their common cultural experiences and expectations.

9.     Language is the system of communication in speech and writing that is used by human beings. 

NOTE: - with regards to the above definitions, the most possible definition of language may be this “Language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through which through (message) is conveyed from one human being to another i. e.: from the speaker or order to the listener or reader.

Elements of language

the definition of language consists of several key terms/elements: 

1. System

a) Language is a system in the sense that it is a collection of signs or symbols i.e. it assembles together the smaller units to form the larger units and these units are arranged in the regular order for example: - phonemes-syllable-morphemes-words-phrases-clauses- sentences-paragraph- comprehension.

b) Language is continued by several elements which are arranged in a regular fixed order, such elements include subject, verb, object, complement, and adverbial.

For example: - The boy has been here since yesterday.
                             S           V              A               A

                         He left your book in my room last week.
                          S   V         O               A                A

c) Language being a system is also constituted by various subsystems such as sound, structural, and meaning systems.

2) Arbitrary

The arboretum is of language is thrown by the following facts

a)     In language there is no correspondence (similarity) between the symbol (sound or letters) and the realities, meaning, or objects that are represented by those symbols.

For example: - the word dog with the four-legged animal, the table as a piece of furniture. However, language is arbitrary because the linguistic symbols used were the language but just picked haphazardly (with no particular plan or organization) i. e. there was no formal meeting by any speech community that sat form language. Each speech community has its own symbols representing different realities.

3) Vocal

Language is said to be vocal since each language is based on speech sounds that are produced by the vocal organs, (organs of the mouth, nose, and throat) i.e. in spoken language is presented through the vocal sounds (sounds from the mouth)

4) Symbol

Languages are symbolic in the sense that language uses signs or symbols to present realities, objects, or ideas.

There are two major types of the symbols used in a language

a) the acoustic image (the sounds)

b) The graphic signs (orthography letters 1 spelling). These symbols represent realities, objects, or ideas in a spoken language; we use acoustic images (sounds) whereas in written language we use graphic signs. (letters)

5) Conventional

Language is conventional because any human language (system of communication) is made to be mentally acceptable and understood by the particular speech community i.e. all members who use the particular language.

6) Message

The Message is the keyword language that has been the message since it is the message that is conveyed from one human being to another i.e. language is used as the medium through which ideas, opinions, or thought is carried from the speaker or writer to listener or reader. The participants in language communicate a message to each other this message is the central element in any communication system (no message no communication).

7) Human being

Language used by human beings i.e. it has been proved that that it is only the human beings among all the creatures who communicate by the use of language from other creatures do communicate using different systems or forms but that never use language as their means of communication.

A language/ A community language

A language is a specific form (system) of speech that is conventional and mutually understood by a specific speech community i.e. it refers to one particular language as used and spoken by a particular community.

The speech community can be an ethics group a tribe or nation or even the whole constituted for example Kichagga is the language of the Chagga people of the Kilimanjaro region, Kingoni is the language of Ngoni as a tribe, Swahili is the language of Tanzania as a nation, English a language of Europe, America, and Australia as continents.

Features of a Language

A language has several features or characteristics: -

1.     It is a specific concept referring to one particular form of speech (system of communication) that is mutually used and understood by a particular speech community.

2.     A language is used to express the culture of a particular speech community i.e. a language is the central element of a particular culture hence a language and culture are inseparable.

3.     A language changes and develops with the changes and development of culture i.e. dynamism of a language is usually influenced by culture.

4.     The language can also change on contact with foreigners through different activities such as trade tours colonial dominations etc.

5.     A language usually means how script palms are spellings different from other languages i.e. each language has different autography spellings.

6.     A language that belongs to a group with other languages that stem from the same incent language for example Kiswahili, Kisukuma, Kihaya, Kinyakyusa, etc. are among the Bantu languages since each language belongs to the Bantu language.

III) Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems

 

 

Neo-Classical Criticism - Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765)

Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765)

Introduction:

Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765) is one of the most famous and influential pieces of literary criticism in the English language. Written as part of his eight-volume edition of Shakespeare's plays, the Preface reflects Johnson’s critical perspective on Shakespeare’s genius, as well as his faults. 

Key points and themes covered in the Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare:

1. Timelessness of Shakespeare’s Works

Johnson begins by praising Shakespeare’s ability to transcend time. He argues that Shakespeare’s plays remain relevant because they explore universal human nature, emotions, and experiences. For Johnson, the playwright captures the complexities of human behavior, making his works appeal to readers and audiences of all generations. He famously writes that Shakespeare's characters "are the genuine progeny of common humanity, such as the world will always supply, and observation will always find."

2. Depiction of Human Nature

Johnson considers Shakespeare a master in portraying human nature. He praises the playwright for creating characters who are true to life, showing both their virtues and flaws. These characters are not confined to specific societal roles or caricatures but are relatable individuals whose actions and emotions mirror real-life experiences.

3. Shakespeare’s Lack of Morality

Although Johnson admires Shakespeare’s portrayal of human nature, he criticizes the playwright for not always aligning his works with moral lessons. Johnson points out that Shakespeare often presents virtue and vice in a neutral light, without explicitly rewarding goodness or punishing evil. Johnson believes that literature should uphold moral standards and teach important ethical lessons, something he feels Shakespeare neglects in favor of entertainment and drama.

4. Mixing of Tragedy and Comedy

Johnson defends Shakespeare’s blending of tragic and comic elements in his plays, which was often criticized by neoclassical critics of the time. He argues that this mixing of genres is truer to life because real human experiences contain both sorrow and joy. Life, Johnson asserts, is neither entirely tragic nor entirely comic, and Shakespeare’s combination of the two reflects the complexities of existence.

 5. Shakespeare’s Language

Johnson notes both the strengths and weaknesses of Shakespeare's language. He commends Shakespeare for his poetic excellence, mastery of metaphor, and linguistic inventiveness. However, he criticizes Shakespeare for frequently indulging in wordplay puns and conceits that, according to Johnson, often distract from the meaning and gravity of the situation. Johnson views some of these linguistic flourishes as unnecessary and excessive.

6. Shakespeare’s Plotting

Johnson acknowledges that Shakespeare’s plots were often borrowed from existing stories and sources. While he does not view this as inherently negative, he points out that Shakespeare sometimes struggles with the construction of coherent plots. He identifies moments where the playwright seems careless about maintaining unity of action and continuity. Yet, despite these plot flaws, Johnson asserts that Shakespeare’s handling of characters and dialogue overshadows these imperfections.

7. Shakespeare’s Use of the Unities

In the classical tradition, critics placed great emphasis on the unities of time, place, and action (derived from Aristotle's Poetics). These rules dictated that a play should have a single plot (unity of action), be set in one location (unity of place), and take place within 24 hours (unity of time). Johnson dismisses the rigid adherence to these unities as unnecessary. He argues that Shakespeare’s plays succeed precisely because they do not follow these constraints and instead allow for a more natural, expansive, and imaginative portrayal of events.

8. Shakespeare’s Faults

Johnson does not shy away from pointing out Shakespeare’s flaws. Aside from the lack of moral direction and occasional incoherence in the plot, Johnson criticizes Shakespeare’s tendency to deviate into trivial scenes, even amid serious action. He calls these digressions “violations of probability” but acknowledges that Shakespeare’s dramatic power often compensates for these errors.

9. Shakespeare’s Enduring Influence

Johnson concludes the Preface by emphasizing Shakespeare’s enduring influence on literature and culture. He notes that Shakespeare’s plays have been performed and admired for over a century by Johnson’s time, proving their lasting value. The playwright’s understanding of human nature, combined with his innovative language and dramatic skill, ensures that Shakespeare’s works will continue to be celebrated for generations to come.

10. Editorial Role

   As part of his edition of Shakespeare’s plays, Johnson also undertook an editorial role. He corrects textual errors, explains obscure references, and offers interpretations of difficult passages. In the Preface, he explains his approach to editing, seeking to preserve the original meaning of Shakespeare's text while making it accessible and understandable for contemporary readers.

Impact of the Preface

Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare is not only a landmark in Shakespearean criticism but also a significant contribution to English literary criticism in general. It remains widely studied for its insights into Shakespeare’s artistry, as well as for its balanced approach that combines admiration with thoughtful critique. Johnson’s views on the role of the critic, the function of literature, and the importance of understanding human nature have had a lasting influence on the field of literary studies.