Three term lable: Consonants and Vowels

The three-term label is a cornerstone method in phonetics and linguistics for systematically describing every consonant and vowel phoneme in a language. Below is an in-depth explanation with clear details and examples for both consonants and vowels.

Three-Term Label for Consonants

Consonants are described by three articulatory features:

1. Voicing

This describes whether the vocal folds (glottis) vibrate during sound production:

• Voiced: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /z/)

• Voiceless: Vocal cords do not vibrate (e.g., /p/, /t/, /s/)

2. Place of Articulation

This specifies the point in the vocal tract where airflow restriction occurs:

• Bilabial: Both lips come together (/p/, /b/, /m/)

• Labiodental: Bottom lip and upper teeth (/f/, /v/)

• Dental/Interdental: Tongue tip to teeth (/θ/ as in 'thin', /ð/ as in 'then')

• Alveolar: Tongue tip to alveolar ridge (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/)

• Post-alveolar/Palato-alveolar: Just behind the alveolar ridge (/ʃ/ as in 'ship', /ʒ/ as in 'vision', /tʃ/, /dʒ/)

• Palatal: Hard palate (/j/ as in 'yes')

• Velar: Soft palate/back of mouth (/k/, /g/, /ŋ/)

• Glottal: vocal cords (/h/)

3. Manner of Articulation: How is the airflow affected?

• Plosive (Stop): Complete closure then release (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/)

• Nasal: Air flows through the nose (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/)

• Fricative: Narrow passage causes turbulence (/f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/)

• Affricate: A stop followed by a fricative (/tʃ/, /dʒ/)

• Lateral Approximant: Air flows over the sides of the tongue (/l/)

• Approximant: Minimal constriction, no turbulence (/r/, /j/, /w/)

Three-Term Label for Vowels

Vowel phonemes are classified on three dimensions:

1. Height (of Tongue)

Describes how high the tongue is in the mouth during phonation:

• Close (High): Tongue close to the roof of mouth (/iː/ as in 'seat', /uː/ as in 'food')

• Mid: Tongue midway between roof and floor (/e/ as in 'bed', /ə/ as in 'sofa')

• Open (Low): Tongue low in the mouth (/æ/ as in 'cat', /ɑː/ as in 'car')

2. Backness (Frontness)

Describes where the tongue is horizontally:

• Front: Tongue pushed forward (/iː/, /e/, /æ/)

• Central: Tongue centrally placed (/ə/, /ʌ/)

• Back: Tongue pulled back (/uː/, /ɑː/, /ɔː/)

3. Lip Rounding

Whether lips are rounded or spread:

• Rounded: Lips form a circular shape (/uː/, /ɔː/)

• Unrounded: Lips are spread or neutral (/iː/, /e/, /æ/)

Additional Notes

• Three-term labels are the quickest and most universally accepted method for describing speech sounds and distinguishing between them in teaching, linguistic description, and language learning contexts.

• In practice, linguists may use diagrams, head cross-sections, or spectrograms to further clarify how these descriptors map to physical sound production.

In sum this detailed, systematic approach allows for clear, precise comparison of the sounds in different languages or dialects, and is fundamental for students and researchers in phonetics and linguistics.

Phonology

Phonology

Phonology is the branch of linguistics that examines how sounds are organized, patterned, and function within languages.

Definition and Scope

Phonology is the scientific study of the sound systems of languages, focusing on how speech sounds are mentally categorized, structured, and used to convey meaning. It differs from phonetics, which is concerned with the physical production and acoustic properties of sounds.

Key Concepts in Phonology

• Phonemes: 

The smallest meaningful units of sound in a language. Every language has its unique set (inventory) of phonemes that distinguish words, such as /p/ vs. /b/ in "pat" and "bat".

• Allophones: 

Variants of a phoneme that occur in specific contexts but do not change meaning. For instance, the two 'l' sounds in "little" are produced differently, but both represent the phoneme /l/.

• Minimal Pairs: 

Word pairs differing only by a single phoneme, used to illustrate phoneme contrasts (e.g., "pet" vs. "pat").

Phonological Rules and Processes

Phonology analyzes rules that dictate how sounds change in specific contexts, including:

• Assimilation: A sound becomes more like neighboring sounds.

• Elision: A sound is omitted from a word in rapid speech.

• Syllabification: Phonology describes how sounds are organized into syllables, which are built from an onset (initial consonants), a nucleus (usually a vowel), and a coda (final consonants).

Phonological rules help linguists predict pronunciation and understand stress patterns, vowel shifts, and other sound phenomena in speech.

Differences Across Languages

Each language has its own phonological inventory and rules, influencing word structure, syllable patterns, and acceptable sound combinations. Some languages allow complex clusters, while others prefer simple syllables.

Cognitive and Practical Applications

Phonology covers both abstract mental structures and practical usage:

Explains why related word forms differ (e.g., "electric" vs. "electricity").

Informs speech technology and therapies for language disorders.

Plays a role in second language acquisition and cross-linguistic comparison.

Relations With Other Linguistic Branches

Phonology is foundational for morphology, syntax, and other linguistic domains, influencing how words are formed and sentences are constructed.

Understanding Language and Linguistics: 

Language is more than words—it's the foundation of human communication. Linguistics, the scientific study of language, helps us uncover how language works, changes, and connects us all.

What is Language? 

Language is a systematic way of expressing ideas, feelings, and information—spoken, written, or signed. It's all about turning thoughts into sounds or symbols.

Linguistics is the academic discipline that analyzes language structure, usage, and evolution. Linguists try to answer questions like how languages are formed, why grammar matters, and how meanings are shared across cultures.

The Five Major Branches of Linguistics

Following are the key branches of Linguistics:

• Phonetics: The sounds we produce and hear.

• Phonology: How those sounds are organized within languages.

• Morphology: How words are built from smaller units (morphemes).

• Syntax: How words are arranged into sentences and phrases.

• Semantics: What words and sentences mean.

Diagram: Branches of Linguistics

Imagine a tree with five main branches. Each branch represents a different area—Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics. This visual makes it easy to see how each part contributes to our understanding of language.

How Sentences Work: Syntax Tree Diagrams

A syntax tree diagram breaks down a sentence to show its grammatical structure. For example, let’s look at “The cat chased the mouse”:

text
         Sentence (S)
       /              \
 Noun Phrase (NP)   Verb Phrase (VP)
  /     \              /         \
Det    Noun         Verb      Noun Phrase (NP)
                              /         \
                           Det        Noun

This diagram helps visualize how each word fits in and what role it plays in the sentence.

Language Structure: From Sounds to Meaning

Language is built in layers:

• Phonemes: Basic sound units.

• Morphemes: Smallest meaningful parts.

• Words: Combinations of morphemes.

• Sentences: Groups of words that make sense.

• Context: How meaning shifts with situation or culture.

A pyramid diagram often shows this flow from basic sounds at the bottom to complex context at the top.

Language Families: The Tree of Languages

Languages evolve and branch out over time. A language family tree diagram starts with ancient proto-languages and splits into various modern families—like how English comes from the Indo-European family, which includes Germanic, Romance, and Slavic branches.

Critical analysis of Matthew Arnold's Touchstone Method

 Critical analysis of Matthew Arnold's Touchstone Method

Matthew Arnold’s Touchstone Method, introduced in his essay The Study of Poetry (1880), is a landmark in literary criticism. It represents Arnold’s attempt to establish objective criteria for evaluating poetry by comparing contemporary works to excerpts from the masterpieces of great poets such as Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton. While the method has been influential in shaping literary criticism, it has also been critiqued for its limitations and subjective nature. This expanded analysis explores the strengths, weaknesses, and legacy of the Touchstone Method in greater detail.

Strengths of the Touchstone Method

1. Objectivity in Literary Evaluation

One of Arnold’s primary goals with the Touchstone Method was to introduce objectivity into literary criticism. He argued that critics often fall into two traps when evaluating poetry:

The Historical Estimate: Judging a poem based on its historical importance rather than its intrinsic literary merit.

The Personal Estimate: Allowing personal tastes and preferences to influence judgment.

By advocating for comparisons with universally acknowledged masterpieces, Arnold sought to provide a neutral standard for evaluating poetry’s quality. This approach was groundbreaking during the Victorian era, when criticism was often subjective or overly influenced by historical context.

2. Focus on High Poetic Quality

Arnold emphasized that great poetry should possess "high seriousness," which he defined as moral profundity and intellectual depth expressed through beautiful language. He believed poetry should serve as a guide for life, offering moral and intellectual enrichment. The Touchstone Method prioritizes these qualities, ensuring that only works with enduring cultural and ethical significance are deemed great.

3. Comparative Simplicity

Arnold suggested that even a single line or short passage from a great poet could serve as a touchstone for evaluating other works. For example, lines from Shakespeare’s Hamlet or Milton’s Paradise Lost could be used as benchmarks to measure the emotional depth and artistic excellence of contemporary poems. This simplicity made the method accessible to critics and readers alike.

4. Promotion of Classical Standards

By advocating comparison with classical masterpieces, Arnold reinforced the importance of preserving high literary standards. He believed that classical poets represented the pinnacle of artistic achievement and that their works could serve as models for future generations of poets and critics.

Criticisms of the Touchstone Method

1. Fragmentary Approach

One of the most significant criticisms of Arnold’s method is its reliance on isolated lines or passages to evaluate entire works. Critics argue that judging a poem by fragments fails to account for its overall structure, thematic coherence, and emotional impact. Poetry is an organic whole, and its merit cannot be fully appreciated through disjointed excerpts.

For instance, while a single line from Milton’s Paradise Lost may exemplify poetic excellence, it does not capture the epic’s thematic complexity or narrative unity. Similarly, modern experimental poetry often relies on unconventional forms that cannot be adequately assessed through fragmentary comparisons.

2. Subjectivity in Selection

The choice of touchstone passages is inherently subjective and reflects Arnold’s personal preferences for classical authors like Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton. This raises questions about whether these selections truly represent universal standards or merely reflect Arnold’s cultural biases as a Victorian critic.

Moreover, Arnold’s focus on European classics excludes other traditions of literary excellence, such as Asian, African, or Indigenous poetry. This Eurocentric bias limits the method’s applicability to global literature.

3. Limited Scope

The Touchstone Method is criticized for being overly prescriptive and narrow in scope. It favors traditional poetic forms and themes while potentially dismissing modern or experimental works that deviate from classical norms. For example, Modernist poets like T.S. Eliot (The Waste Land) or Ezra Pound (Cantos) employ fragmented structures and unconventional imagery that challenge classical conventions but are still considered masterpieces in their own right. Contemporary poets like Langston Hughes or Pablo Neruda explore themes of identity and social justice that may not align with Arnold’s emphasis on "high seriousness."

4. Inadequacy for Entire Works

Arnold himself acknowledged that judging a poem solely by its fragments is insufficient for assessing its full merit. A poem's greatness lies not only in isolated moments but also in its total impression—its ability to evoke emotion, convey meaning, and achieve aesthetic unity.

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

Despite its limitations, Matthew Arnold’s Touchstone Method remains influential in literary criticism for several reasons:

1. Foundation for Comparative Criticism

Arnold’s method laid the groundwork for comparative criticism by emphasizing the importance of evaluating new works against established standards of excellence. This approach continues to inform modern critical practices.

2. Emphasis on Timelessness

Arnold’s focus on timeless qualities such as moral seriousness and intellectual depth ensures that poetry remains relevant across generations. His insistence on high standards challenges critics to uphold literary excellence in an era dominated by mass culture.

3. Adaptation by Modern Critics

While modern critics have moved beyond fragmentary comparisons, they continue to use Arnold’s principles as a starting point for broader analyses. For example, Critics now evaluate entire poems rather than isolated lines to assess thematic coherence and emotional resonance. The method has been adapted to include diverse literary traditions beyond European classics.

Conclusion

Matthew Arnold’s Touchstone Method represents an important milestone in literary criticism. It introduces objectivity and promotes high standards for evaluating poetry. Its strengths lie in emphasizing moral seriousness, intellectual depth, and artistic excellence while discouraging historical or personal biases.

However, its reliance on fragmentary comparisons and Eurocentric focus limits its applicability to diverse poetic traditions and modern experimental works. Despite these criticisms, the method remains relevant as a foundational concept in comparative criticism, reminding readers and critics alike of the enduring importance of preserving literary excellence across cultures and eras.

Arnold's contributions continue to inspire debates about how best to evaluate poetry in an ever-changing literary landscape—a testament to his lasting influence on Victorian criticism and beyond.

William Wordsworth's Theory of Poetic Diction

                               William Wordsworth's Theory of Poetic Diction

Inrtoduction:

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) was an English Romantic poet and one of the most influential figures in English Literature. He is best known for his pionereeing role in launching the Romantic Age alongside Samuel Taylor Coleridge with thier point publication Lyrical Ballads (1798), which emphasized themes of nature, emotion, and the use of simple, everyday language in poetry. 

Wordsworth’s poetic career began with works such as An Evening Walk (1793) and Descriptive Sketches (1793). However, his collaboration with Coleridge marked a turning point. Together, they produced Lyrical Ballads, which introduced a revolutionary approach to poetry by focusing on ordinary life and emotions expressed in simple language. His magnum opus, The Prelude, is a semi-autobiographical poem chronicling the “growth of a poet’s mind.” Though it was published posthumously in 1850, it remains one of the greatest achievements of Romantic literature.

Wordsworth’s poetry reflects his deep connection to nature, which he saw as a source of spiritual renewal and moral guidance. He believed poetry should use the language of common people to convey universal truths about human experience. His works often explore themes such as memory, childhood innocence, and the transformative power of nature. In 1843, Wordsworth was appointed Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, a position he held until his death on April 23, 1850. His later years were marked by personal tragedies but also by recognition as one of England’s greatest poets.

Wordsworth’s influence on English poetry is immeasurable. His emphasis on simplicity, emotional depth, and the beauty of nature redefined poetic expression and laid the foundation for Romanticism. He remains celebrated for works like I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud ("Daffodils") and Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey.

Wordsworth as a Critic

William Wordsworth's role as a critic is pivotal in the evolution of literary criticism, particularly during the transition from Neo-classical to Romantic ideals. His most significant contribution is encapsulated in the preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), which serves as an unofficial manifesto for the Romantic movement.

Important Contributions:

Shift from Form to Substance: Wordsworth was among the first critics to prioritize the substance of poetry over its formal aspects. He challenged the prevailing Neo-classical focus on strict rules and poetic genres, advocating for a more organic approach to poetry that emphasized emotion and imagination rather than adherence to classical forms.

Critique of Poetic Diction: He vehemently opposed the "gaudiness and inane phraseology" of contemporary poets, arguing for a return to simpler, more natural language that resonated with everyday experiences. This marked a significant departure from the elitist diction favored by previous critics.

Theory of Poetry and Creativity: Wordsworth articulated a theory of poetry that highlighted the creative process as one involving deep thought and reflection. He emphasized that genuine poetry arises from "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which must be contemplated in tranquility.

Democratization of the Poet's Role: He democratized the conception of the poet, asserting that poets are not fundamentally different from other people but possess a heightened sensibility and deeper emotional connection to their surroundings. This perspective broadened the scope of who could be considered a poet.

Historical Significance: Wordsworth's critical insights laid the groundwork for future literary criticism by dismantling outdated conventions and opening new avenues for artistic expression. His ideas fostered a greater appreciation for personal experience and emotional authenticity in literature.

In summary, Wordsworth's influence as a critic is marked by his advocacy for emotional depth, simplicity in language, and a focus on the creative process, which collectively transformed literary criticism and paved the way for subsequent generations of writers. 

William Wordsworth’s Theory of Poetic Diction: A Detailed Explanation and Analysis

William Wordsworth, a central figure in the Romantic movement, revolutionized English poetry with his theory of poetic diction. His ideas, primarily articulated in the Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1802), challenged the prevailing neoclassical traditions and emphasized simplicity, natural expression, and emotional depth in poetry. Wordsworth sought to redefine the language and purpose of poetry, making it more accessible and reflective of authentic human experiences.

Context and Background of Wordsworth’s Theory

During the 18th century, poetry was dominated by Neoclassicism, which favored highly stylized language, elaborate metaphors, and rigid poetic forms. The poetry of Alexander Pope and John Dryden exemplified this tradition, with its artificial grandeur and formal diction. Wordsworth, however, sought to break away from these conventions, arguing that poetry should mirror the language of ordinary people and capture the depth of human emotions in a natural and unpretentious manner.

Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads, co-authored with Samuel Taylor Coleridge and first published in 1798, marked the beginning of a new poetic era. The Preface to Lyrical Ballads (revised in 1802) became a manifesto for Romantic poetry, outlining his radical ideas on poetic language, subject matter, and the role of the poet.

Key Aspects of Wordsworth’s Theory of Poetic Diction

A. Rejection of Artificial and Ornate Language

Wordsworth strongly opposed the elevated and decorative language that had been prevalent in poetry before him. He believed that poetic diction should not be distinct from the language used by common people in their daily lives. In the Preface to Lyrical Ballads, he states:

“There will be found in these volumes little of what is usually called poetic diction; I have taken as much pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it.”

This statement highlights his deliberate effort to strip poetry of its artificial embellishments and make it more relatable.

B. Use of Everyday Language

Wordsworth argued that poetry should be written in “the real language of men,” meaning the simple and direct speech used by ordinary people. He believed that the language of the rural and working-class population was purer and more emotionally sincere than the elaborate vocabulary of aristocratic society. By using the language of common people, he aimed to create poetry that was both meaningful and accessible.

However, Wordsworth did not advocate for a mere transcription of common speech; rather, he suggested refining and selecting language to heighten its poetic quality. As he explained:

“A selection of language really used by men … purified indeed from what appear to be its real defects, from all lasting and rational causes of dislike or disgust.”

This implies that while he sought to use simple language, it was still carefully chosen to evoke beauty and depth.

C. Emotion as the Soul of Poetry

Another essential component of Wordsworth’s theory was the emphasis on emotions. He famously defined poetry as:

“The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility.”

This definition underscores his belief that poetry should emerge from deep emotional experiences and be refined through reflection. Rather than relying on grandiose themes or mythological references, he encouraged poets to focus on the universal emotions of love, sorrow, joy, and nature’s beauty.

D. Focus on Rural Life and Common Subjects

Wordsworth believed that rural life provided the purest and most profound human experiences, untouched by the artificiality of urban society. He saw nature and rustic life as ideal subjects for poetry because they fostered deep emotional connections and moral truths. Many of his poems, such as Michael, The Solitary Reaper, and Tintern Abbey, depict simple rural scenes yet convey profound philosophical insights.

His preference for humble and ordinary subjects was a radical departure from classical poetry, which often focused on heroic figures, mythological themes, or grand historical events.

Impact of Wordsworth’s Theory on English Poetry

Wordsworth’s ideas had a transformative impact on English literature, shaping the Romantic movement and influencing subsequent generations of poets. Some of the key effects include:

• Democratization of Poetry: By advocating for everyday language and common subjects, Wordsworth expanded the scope of poetry, making it more accessible to a broader audience.
• Emphasis on Individual Experience: His focus on personal emotions and inner reflection paved the way for more introspective and subjective poetry.
• Nature as a Central Theme: His deep engagement with nature inspired poets like John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Robert Frost.
• Rejection of Rigid Poetic Forms: Wordsworth’s free-flowing, expressive style influenced later poetic movements, including modernism.

However, his theory was not without criticism. Some contemporaries, including Coleridge, argued that not all subjects or words used in ordinary speech were suitable for poetry. Despite this, Wordsworth’s impact on poetry remains profound.

Conclusion

Wordsworth’s Theory of Poetic Diction marked a major shift in English literature by challenging traditional poetic conventions and advocating for simplicity, sincerity, and emotional depth. His emphasis on the natural language of ordinary people, the power of emotion, and the beauty of rural life helped shape the Romantic movement and left a lasting legacy on poetry. His ideas continue to influence modern literature, reinforcing the belief that poetry should be a reflection of real human experiences rather than an exercise in ornamental language. 

 

Introduction to Language

Shikshan Prasarak Sanstha’s
Padmabhushan Vasantraodada Patil Mahavidyalaya, Kavathe Mahankal
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
B. A. PART - II

LINGUISTICS (I.D.S) (Paper - I) (Semester - III)

LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS (CBCS with MEME by NEP) QUESTION PAPER PATTERN June 2023 Onwards

Detailed Syllabi (June 20232 Onwards)

 

 Course Objectives:

§  To acquaint the students with Language and Linguistics in general.

§  To acquaint the students with Phonetics and Phonology.

§  To acquaint the students with Morphology and Syntax.

§  To acquaint the students with the concepts of Semantics and Pragmatics.

Course Outcomes: After completing the course, the student will be able to:

§  Know about language and linguistics.

§  Learn the concepts of Phonetics and Phonology

§  Understand the basics of Morphology and Syntax

§  Acquaint with Semantics and Pragmatics

 

 Module: I Introduction to Language

I)  Definitions

II)    Characteristics of Language

III)   Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems

Module: II Introduction to Linguistics

I)    What is Linguistics?

II)    Linguistics as a Science

III)   Diachronic and Synchronic Linguistics

IV)    The Concepts of ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’

Module: III Phonetics

I)  Speech Mechanism:

i)  Organs of Speech: lips, teeth, tongue, palate (the roof of the mouth), uvula, vocal cords, etc.

ii)  Description of English Consonants and Vowels with three-term labels

iii)  Active and Passive Articulators

II)  Phonetics:

i)  Difference between Speech Sounds and Letters

ii)  What is Phonetics?

iii)  Branches of Phonetics: Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics.

iv)    Phonetic Transcription of Simple Words

 Module: IV Phonology

I)  Difference between Phonetics and Phonology

II)    Phonemes and Allophones

III)   Minimal Pairs

 

Division of Teaching: 4 Modules X 15 Periods = 60 Periods

v Note: Semester-III: 10 Marks for Internal Evaluation: Group Activity.

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 Module: I  Introduction to Language
I)  Definitions
II) Characteristics of Language
III)   Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems

I)                Introduction to Language

Language is a means of communication and through communication, we express our information like thoughts, ideas, concepts, emotions, feelings, etc. Language is defined in several ways in the document or in the text. The most encompassing definition is that language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through which thought is conveyed from one human being to another. Language has several key elements - it is a system, the symbols used are arbitrary, it is vocal in nature, it uses symbols, and the symbols are conventional. Language allows for the transmission of messages between humans. It has unique properties like the duality of structure, creativity, arbitrariness, reciprocity, displacement, cultural transmission through learning, specialization, discreteness, and reflexiveness. Competence refers to the internalized knowledge of language rules, while performance is the actual use of language. Language serves important functions like communication.

Definitions:

1.     Language is a symbol system based on pure or arbitrary conventions…. (syane and jindal 2007:1)

2.     Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral auditory arbitrary. (Hall, 1969 (ibid)

3.     Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates. (Bioch and Trager, 1942)

4.     Language is a system of vocal symbols used for human communications. (wardaugh- 1972)

5.     Language is a collection of signs arbitrarily chosen and organized according to certain fixed principles acceptable by society.

6.     Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed from one human being (a speaker or writer) to another (a listener or reader)

7.     Language is a conventional system habitual system of vocal behavior by which community members communicate with one another.

8.     Language is a learned and shared habitual system of vocal symbols through which human beings in the same speech community interact and communicate in terms of their common cultural experiences and expectations.

9.     Language is the system of communication in speech and writing that is used by human beings. 

NOTE: - with regards to the above definitions, the most possible definition of language may be this “Language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through which through (message) is conveyed from one human being to another i. e.: from the speaker or order to the listener or reader.

Elements of language

the definition of language consists of several key terms/elements: 

1. System

a) Language is a system in the sense that it is a collection of signs or symbols i.e. it assembles together the smaller units to form the larger units and these units are arranged in the regular order for example: - phonemes-syllable-morphemes-words-phrases-clauses- sentences-paragraph- comprehension.

b) Language is continued by several elements which are arranged in a regular fixed order, such elements include subject, verb, object, complement, and adverbial.

For example: - The boy has been here since yesterday.
                             S           V              A               A

                         He left your book in my room last week.
                          S   V         O               A                A

c) Language being a system is also constituted by various subsystems such as sound, structural, and meaning systems.

2) Arbitrary

The arboretum is of language is thrown by the following facts

a)     In language there is no correspondence (similarity) between the symbol (sound or letters) and the realities, meaning, or objects that are represented by those symbols.

For example: - the word dog with the four-legged animal, the table as a piece of furniture. However, language is arbitrary because the linguistic symbols used were the language but just picked haphazardly (with no particular plan or organization) i. e. there was no formal meeting by any speech community that sat form language. Each speech community has its own symbols representing different realities.

3) Vocal

Language is said to be vocal since each language is based on speech sounds that are produced by the vocal organs, (organs of the mouth, nose, and throat) i.e. in spoken language is presented through the vocal sounds (sounds from the mouth)

4) Symbol

Languages are symbolic in the sense that language uses signs or symbols to present realities, objects, or ideas.

There are two major types of the symbols used in a language

a) the acoustic image (the sounds)

b) The graphic signs (orthography letters 1 spelling). These symbols represent realities, objects, or ideas in a spoken language; we use acoustic images (sounds) whereas in written language we use graphic signs. (letters)

5) Conventional

Language is conventional because any human language (system of communication) is made to be mentally acceptable and understood by the particular speech community i.e. all members who use the particular language.

6) Message

The Message is the keyword language that has been the message since it is the message that is conveyed from one human being to another i.e. language is used as the medium through which ideas, opinions, or thought is carried from the speaker or writer to listener or reader. The participants in language communicate a message to each other this message is the central element in any communication system (no message no communication).

7) Human being

Language used by human beings i.e. it has been proved that that it is only the human beings among all the creatures who communicate by the use of language from other creatures do communicate using different systems or forms but that never use language as their means of communication.

A language/ A community language

A language is a specific form (system) of speech that is conventional and mutually understood by a specific speech community i.e. it refers to one particular language as used and spoken by a particular community.

The speech community can be an ethics group a tribe or nation or even the whole constituted for example Kichagga is the language of the Chagga people of the Kilimanjaro region, Kingoni is the language of Ngoni as a tribe, Swahili is the language of Tanzania as a nation, English a language of Europe, America, and Australia as continents.

Features of a Language

A language has several features or characteristics: -

1.     It is a specific concept referring to one particular form of speech (system of communication) that is mutually used and understood by a particular speech community.

2.     A language is used to express the culture of a particular speech community i.e. a language is the central element of a particular culture hence a language and culture are inseparable.

3.     A language changes and develops with the changes and development of culture i.e. dynamism of a language is usually influenced by culture.

4.     The language can also change on contact with foreigners through different activities such as trade tours colonial dominations etc.

5.     A language usually means how script palms are spellings different from other languages i.e. each language has different autography spellings.

6.     A language that belongs to a group with other languages that stem from the same incent language for example Kiswahili, Kisukuma, Kihaya, Kinyakyusa, etc. are among the Bantu languages since each language belongs to the Bantu language.

III) Difference between Human and Animal Communication Systems